Until the 1970s women were always a minority among Israeli artists and most of them either followed the men or worked outside the leading artistic movements. Although the early twentieth-century Jewish community in Palestine prior to the establishment of the State of Israel. "Old Yishuv" refers to the Jewish community prior to 1882; "New Yishuv" to that following 1882.Yishuv (the Jewish settlement in Palestine) was a pioneering society with egalitarian ideals, it was (like every society in the world) ultimately led and directed by men, and so too were the various artistic groups. Hence any attempt to isolate the women artists as a group is artificial and takes them out of any cultural-historical context. Nonetheless, there is no other way of understanding their role in Israeli art.

Any discussion of the place of women in Israeli art immediately raises two key questions. First: Can we distinguish “feminine” characteristics in women’s art? Second: Can we identify distinctively Israeli characteristics in this art?

Grouping women artists together as a separate category requires us to define what distinguishes them from male artists. What is Women’s Art? Does it express itself in “feminine” thematics? Or is it perhaps made of “feminine” materials and forms? Women artists themselves give diverse answers, stemming from two main standpoints. There are those who categorically refuse to relate to the question of their gender. Some of them do not want to be labeled “feminists” because of the militant connotations which they feel are associated with this term. Most of them argue that they should be judged as “artists” in the general sense, because any definition of them as a gender group heightens the inequality between men and women and perpetuates male-chauvinist conceptions. On the other hand, there are women artists who present themselves as feminists and are interested in accentuating the difference between themselves and male artists, in their artistic approaches, in their subject matter and in their choice of techniques and materials.

In an inclusive (and superficial) attempt to define the historical development of these different approaches, we can say that the first is characteristic of women artists who were active mainly before the 1970s, while the second approach is more characteristic of women artists who began creating in the 1970s, after the rise of feminist awareness.

Nonetheless, even in the works of the first group—those who objected to being classified as women artists—we can find themes that are connected to their female experience, such as pregnancy, childbirth, or motherhood. Until the 1970s, however, the work of women artists in Israel contains no trace of more intimate personal experiences such as menstruation, incest, male violence, etc. Yocheved Weinfeld was one of the first women artists whose work deals with the subject of menstruation, as in Untitled, 1974, in which cloth resembling sanitary napkins is stained with red like menstrual blood and placed on pubic hair.

Yet while in other countries these subjects long ago became the principal themes of contemporary women’s art, in Israel they have appeared on the feminine agenda only in recent years. Before this, the incessant struggle for survival in Israel far overshadowed what was considered as women’s private suffering, which had become secondary both to loss and bereavement and to social or political criticism. Only in recent years has the protest of the female body become legitimate in Israel, even serving as a vehicle to express other protests.

Besides themes connected with the female experience of childbirth or motherhood, we also find in the works of the first group techniques and materials that were perceived as “feminine,” such as needlework, weaving or clay. It should be noted that these “feminine” materials were defined as such not by the women artists, but by the critics and researchers, some of whom consider them inferior in value. For example, most of the women sculptors who created in clay did not do so because they identified it with femininity (Mother Earth) but because they found a “vacant niche” there that allowed them a freedom to create and invent as they wished. Gdula Ogen, for example, says that she turned to ceramics because she felt that there was a vacant space which enabled her to develop as she wished: “I had some air there,” she said.

We should also bear in mind the fact that many women from the first group were artists concurrently with their regular activity as homemakers, who generally did not have “a room of one’s [their] own”—and if they did, had only a very small one, partly because of the modest living conditions and the difficult economic situation prevalent in the country at the time. Women painters could manage somehow in a corner of a room, but women sculptors had to limit themselves and create in dimensions and techniques that did not require much space. (Finally, however, as in the cases of Gdula Ogen or Siona Shimshi, their creative drive led them to complex techniques and monumental works.) Hence before the establishment of the State of Israel most of the women artists in the Jewish community in Palestine prior to the establishment of the State of Israel. "Old Yishuv" refers to the Jewish community prior to 1882; "New Yishuv" to that following 1882.Yishuv engaged in painting, ceramics or even sculpture in wood, and very few in stone or bronze monumental sculpture.

At the time, this phenomenon was unique neither to Israel nor to women artists in general. Sculpture requires a spacious studio as well as money to cover the costs of the materials. It also involves techniques that require physical strength and the help of assistants and technicians. Only a well-known sculptor, one who has received a commission and knows that there will be enough money to cover both the technical costs and the expensive materials, can create monumental works. This condition made it particularly difficult for women sculptors, most of whom were perceived as part-time artists, women who engaged in art beside their main work—raising children and managing a home. It also explains why the role of women sculptors in the erecting of monuments in Israel has been so minimal: out of approximately one thousand monuments, only thirty were done by women sculptors, and of the three hundred artists who created these monuments, only twelve were women.

Contrary to the slow development of sculpture in stone and metals, sculpture in ceramics was perhaps the distinctive contribution of women artists in Israel. While women who sculpted in stone and bronze generally represented traditional approaches to sculpture, at least until the 1960s, those who sculpted in clay were far more innovative and original. Not only is there an impressive number of women artists who work in clay, but we can find distinctive characteristics in their works—not so much feminine, but distinctly local.

These “local” aspects bring us back to the second question posed at the beginning of this survey—can we identify Israeli characteristics in women’s art? The problem of local identity is germane not only to women’s art but also to all art created in Israel, since Israel—both pre-State and since statehood—was (and still is) a country of immigrants. Art developed in the country within a short span of time, with no artistic tradition, and therefore it was—at least in its beginnings—eclectic, imitative and based on many imported influences. Moreover, since there existed almost no tradition of The Land of IsraelErez Israel symbols apart from the “seven species,” artists were constrained to use Jewish symbols such as the Shield of David in order to characterize “Israeliness.” As a consequence most of the artists, including the women among them, sought their lexicon of forms in the local flora and fauna and in local motifs—some of them archeological items and patterns, not necessarily Jewish, and some of them “Oriental”—namely Arabic, Yemenite or North African.

This local orientation finds expression particularly in the works of women artists because more women artists engaged in ceramics, where we find conspicuous use of archeological sources. However, expression of the local is no greater in paintings by women than in those by men, whether they were realist artists, painting landscapes, figures and scenes of local life, or abstract painters, inspired by local light, colors and forms.

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This survey of women artists in Israel indicates that most of them were not associated with the leading groups in Israeli art and that even if they did exhibit with one of these groups, they were generally temporarily co-opted by men who “permitted” them to exhibit together with them. In most cases they worked and exhibited separately, sometimes by their own choice. For this reason (and for other reasons recognized today in feminist research) women artists are almost never mentioned in the discourse of the history of Israeli art. For example, in a booklet published by The Israel Museum in 1985, Milestones in Israel Art, the section surveying painters’ activity up to the 1970s mentions only two women—Leah Nikel and Aviva Uri—and from the 1970s on, only three. This in spite of the fact that after the establishment of the State and in the course of the 1950s there was a sharp rise in the number of women artists: more women artists, and more women artists who devote all their time to art.

Some of the women artists were well known in their time and evidence of their presence appears in reviews of exhibitions and in various issues of the periodical Gazit which contain surveys of the artists in Israel. However, even in these reviews and surveys there is a clear difference between the attitude to male artists and that towards women artists: while the men’s works are always analyzed in a matter-of-fact manner, discussing only their artistic value, many critics of women’s works start by describing the appearance of the artists. Over the years even the well-known women were forgotten by the men who wrote the official history of art in Israel. Only in recent years has comprehensive and in-depth research begun on the subject of women artists in Israeli art, but as yet no history has been written that gives them their rightful place.

Despite the clear rise in the number of women artists in the 1950s, the real turning-point came only in the 1970s, following the influx of international cultural influences and the rise of feminism in Israel. Only then was there a significant growth in the number of women artists. This number continued to grow in almost geometrical progression until the 1990s and later, when the number of participants in exhibitions in the various museums and galleries was divided equally between men and women, with the women at times even in the majority.